However, the phytoplasmas involved in these diseases are different from those that cause LYD/LY in Africa and the Caribbean region, and the diseases are generally not lethal. Coconut Industry Board (2013) Final report of project sustainable coconut production through control of Coconut Lethal Yellowing (CFC/FIGOOF/22). More recent techniques allow infection levels to be assessed. Phytoplasma species, characterized by distinctive biological, phytopathological, and genetic properties. The presence of phytoplasmas in phloem tubes of infected plants was confirmed by DAPI staining. The time between ingestion by the insect and attainment of an infectious titer in the salivary glands is termed the latency period.[38]. 1998). Palm Diseases Caused by Phytoplasmas: Lethal Yellowing and Texas Phoenix Palm Decline Monica L. Elliott and Nigel A. Harrison University of Florida, IFAS, Fort Lauderdale Research and Education Center July 2007 Until recently, the only Florida palm disease caused by a phytoplasma was lethal yellowing. Kalimantan wilt disease of coconut was first reported in Indonesia by farmers in 1978, and an outbreak was observed in 1988 (Warokka et al. Non-palm species have also been reported to be associated with LY phytoplasmas. The phytoplasma associated with CYD shared 99% 16S rRNA identity with Bermuda grass white leaf phytoplasma related to ‘Ca. 2011) and group 16SrXXII, suggesting that this phytoplasma is part of the lethal yellowing disease cluster. RAD23 proteins are also required for promoting leafhopper vector egg laying on plants that express SAP54 and are infected with AY-WB phytoplasma. 2009b). Phytoplasma: diseases, disease pictures, symptoms, classification, databases, detection and identification, phylogeny, taxonomy, and Genomics. Dmitriev (2016) provided a morphological description and detailed illustrations of N. curta specimens collected from coconut palms in the Western Region of Ghana. Palms are found in tropical and subtropical areas of the world and have significant economic and ecological importance. Phytoplasmas can infect and cause various symptoms in more than 700 plant species. For example, the leafhopper Macrosteles quadrilineatus laid 30% more eggs on plants that expressing SAP11 transgenically than control plants, and 60% more eggs on plants infected with AY-WB. 2013). Harrison NA, Oropeza C (2008) Coconut lethal yellowing. [6] These symptoms may be attributable to stress caused by the infection rather than a specific pathogenetic process. Schuiling M, Mpunami A, Kaiza DA (1992) Lethal disease of coconut palm in Tanzania. 2014). 1972) and (b) differential responses of infected palms to the antibiotics penicillin and oxytetracycline (Hunt et al. Mejía F, Palmieri M, Oropeza C (2004) First report of coconut lethal yellowing disease in Guatemala. Sensitive and accurate detection of these micro-organisms is a prerequisite for the management of phytoplasma-associated diseases. Subgroup 16SrIV-E has only been found in coconut palms in the Dominican Republic (Martinez et al. The sequences from the CSPW phytoplasma were observed to be identical to those of the CILY phytoplasma. In Ghana, a field practice called “slow down” has been implemented in an integrated control strategy based on early detection and prompt removal of diseased palms to control CSPWD spread (Danyo 2011). Nigeria appears to be the first country affected by LYD in West Africa in 1913 where it was called “awka wilt” disease (Johnson 1918). So far 19 different phytoplasma ribosomal groups encompassing various subgroups have been reported. These diseases are associated with phytoplasmas belonging to 16Sr groups other than those in 16SrIV and 16SrXXII. Phytoplasma Mali. The first report of the disease was made in 2006 in the Weligama area, and the disease has since spread to other coconut-growing areas in Southern Sri Lanka (Wejisekara et al. 2013). Bacterial diseases ... Phytoplasma: Little peach (= yellows) Phytoplasma Red Suture (= yellows) Phytoplasma Rosette Phytoplasma X-Disease Phytoplasma Yellow leaf roll Phytoplasma (1999) showed that the Mozambican and Ghanaian samples were more similar to each other than those from Kenya and Tanzania. Oropeza et al. Tymon AM, Jones P, Harrison NA (1998) Phylogenetic relationships of coconut phytoplasmas and the development of specific oligonucleotide PCR primers. An emerging problem in the Pacific Northwest USA is a ‘purple-top’ disease caused by a clover proliferation group phytoplasma vectored primarily, but not exclusively, by beet leafhopper, Circulifer tenellus (Baker) (Crosslin et al., 2005). Bacteria in one plant can also spread to other plants, so often removal of an infected plant is … 2000; Razin 2007). Wang et al. Phytoplasmas move within phloem from a source to a sink, and can pass through sieve tube element. A range of lethal yellowing-type diseases have been reported from Asia. In other places, such as in Africa, the vectors have so far been elusive, although putative vectors have been identified. In Malaysia, coconut lethal yellowing-like symptoms were observed about 90 years ago, but it was only reported as a serious threat after 2000 and referred to as coconut yellowing disease (CYD) attributed to a phytoplasma (Nejat et al. Dried fronds hang on the crown for some time before eventually falling off. [50] In fact, the Bermuda grass white-leaf phytoplasma has a genome size of only 530 kb, one of the smallest known genomes of all living organisms. 2013). Many phytoplasma-infected plants develop a bushy or "witch's broom" appearance due to changes in their normal growth patterns. Subgroup 16SrIV-D has been found in a non-palm species Carludovica palmata (Cordova et al. Second Plantation Crop Symposium. In coconut, the most important phytoplasma disease is lethal yellowing (LY), as it is referred to in the Americas and the Caribbean region. Tymon et al. Phytoplasmas contain a major antigenic protein constituting most of the cell surface protein. The phytoplasma associated plant diseases have a history of more than 50 years. The disease was called “bogia” coconut syndrome (BCS). Kelly PL, Reeder R, Kokoa P, Arocha Y, Nixon T, Fox A (2011) First report of a phytoplasma identified in coconut palms (. [52], Despite their small genomes, many predicted phytoplasma genes are present in multiple copies. The use of PCR, sequencing and phylogenetic analysis techniques has allowed the identification of groups and subgroups of the phytoplasmas associated with some of the syndromes reported for palms and non-palm species (Harrison and Oropeza 2008). Phytoplasma is a infectious agent in plant having cosmopolitan distribution and related to several types of plants diseases which cause severe epidemics of often quarantine purposes. 1972; Plavsic-Banjac et al. 1994). With fronds falling off, the crown becomes smaller and the trunk begins to taper. Tanne E, Boudon-Padieu E, Clair D, Davidovich M, Melamed S, Klein M (2001) Detection of phytoplasma by polymerase chain reaction of insect feeding medium and its use in determining vectoring ability. [30][32][33] Interestingly, RAD23 mutants do not show phyllody when infected with phytoplasma indicating that RAD23 proteins are susceptibility factors; i.e. 1992; Mpunami et al. Harrison NA, Oropeza C (1997) Recent studies on detection of lethal yellowing disease phytoplasmas in the Americas. Gurr GM, Johnson AC, Ash GJ, Wilson BAL, Ero MM, Pilotti CA, Dewhurst CF, You MS (2016) Coconut lethal yellowing diseases: a phytoplasma threat to palms of global economic and social significance. ), and the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.). 2008). The disease is known internationally as Kerala wilt disease; it does not kill the palms but causes massive yield losses. The epidemiology of these diseases needs to be elucidated. Infection triggers more axillary shoot production; the poinsettia plants thus produce more than a single flower. Mpunami A, Tymon A, Jones P, Dickinson M (1999) Genetic diversity in the coconut lethal yellowing disease phytoplasma of East Africa. Symptoms of sweet potato little leaf phytoplasma on Catharanthus roseus, A flower of China Aster showing phyllody symptoms, A palm tree dying of lethal yellowing phytoplasma, A cabbage tree killed by Phytoplasma australiense, Witch's Broom disease of bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus), CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2020 (. In: Lethal Yellowing Research and Practical Aspects. 36 Presence and distribution of phytoplasma diseases and vectors in Germany and Switzerland: current state of the art B. Jarausch, M. Maixner, P. Kehrli, S. Schaerer 41 Recent insight on phytoplasma diseases and vectors in France X. Foissac 47 Overview of the phytoplasma and vector research in Austria, Croatia and Slovenia (Mpunami et al. Naderali N, Vadamalai G, Tan YH, Nejat N (2014) Detection and identification of aster yellows phytoplasma associated with lipstick yellow frond disease in Malaysia. 2001) maybe an alternative option. P. palmicola’ and assigned to 16SrXXII-A subgroup, whereas the closest group, from Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire, was assigned to a different ribosomal subgroup 16SrXXII-B and has been named as a ‘Ca. Cryotherapy (i.e., the freezing of plant samples in liquid nitrogen) prior to tissue culture increases the probability of producing healthy plants in this manner. Eds Harrison NA, Rao GP, Marcone C. Studium Press. The disease is now the number one threat to coconut cultivation in many countries where it has killed millions of trees. In Asia, diseases with similar symptoms as LY have also been reported. Female flower production declines and the palm becomes unproductive. Phytoplasma australiense,[48] and Ca. Phytoplasma diseases are managed by the use of healthy planting material, removal of alternative weed hosts and chemical control of the insect vector. nucipersica Bacterial diseases. 2009). Diseases with similar symptoms as LY occur in Africa and are collectively called lethal yellowing-like diseases (LYD). 2006). In Jamaica, the heavy losses suffered by the Maypan hybrid which was planted extensively as a control of LY were partly explained by the genetic contamination of the Panama Tall (PNT), the pollen parent, with pollen from the susceptible Jamaican Tall ecotype and a large percentage of off-types observed in the MYD mother palms (Baudouin et al. Moreover, Nkansah-Poku et al. Several economically relevant phytoplasma-associated diseases are described together with an update of phytoplasma taxonomy and major biological and molecular features of phytoplasmas. 2008). Baudouin L, Lebrun P, Berger A, Myrie W, Been B, Dollet M (2008) The Panama Tall and the Maypan hybrid coconut in Jamaica: did genetic contamination cause a loss of resistance to lethal yellowing? Nejat N, Sijam K, Abdullah SNA Vadamalai G., Dickinson M (2009b) Phytoplasmas associated with disease of coconut in Malaysia are from two different phylogenetic groups and occur in other plant species. Vázquez-Euán R, Harrison NA, Narvaez M, Oropeza C (2011) Occurrence of a 16SrIV group phytoplasma not previously associated with palm species in Yucatan, Mexico. Ashburner GR, Cordova I, Oropeza C, Illingworth R, Harrison NA (1996) First report of coconut lethal yellowing in Honduras. Cronjé P, Dabek AJ, Jones P, Tymon AM (2000) Slow decline: a new disease of mature date palms in North Africa associated with phytoplasma. McCoy RE (1972) Remission of lethal yellowing in coconut palms treated with tetracycline antibiotics. 2011) and in Phoenix canariensis, Phoenix dactylifera, P. reclinata, P. roebelenii, P. sylvestris, Syagrus romanzoffiana, Butiagrus “nabonnandii” (Butia odorata × S. romanzoffiana), and Sabal palmetto palms in the USA. Alhudaib K, Arocha Y, Wilson M, Jones P (2007) “Al-Wijam”, a new phytoplasma disease of date palm in Saudi Arabia. Phyllody caused by phytoplasma infection on Cosmos spp. Botany (4th semester) School of Life Sciences 2. However, the same study failed to confirm any of the pantatomids previously tested as harboring LYD phytoplasma. Harrison NA, Womack M, Carpio ML (2002) Detection and characterization of a lethal yellowing (165rIV) group phytoplasma in Canary Island date palms affected by lethal decline in Texas. Stage 1 of LY is recognized solely by premature nut fall (Harrison and Elliot 2005). Infection of phytoplasma is known to cause disease on … 2016), Belize, Cuba, Honduras, Jamaica, St. Kitts and Nevis (Myrie et al. This IPM program includes (a) monitoring to detect palms with early LY symptoms, (b) elimination of these palms as soon as they are detected, (c) immediate replanting, and (d) weeding. Phytoplasmas can have varying effects on their insect hosts; examples of both reduced and increased fitness have been noted. Swarbrick et al. However by applying an IPM program, it was possible to manage LY in Michael Black Farm, a coconut plantation located in the parish of St. Thomas, an area affected by the LY variant. It is hoped that the recent breakthrough in the culture of phytoplasmas will help to speed up research on these enigmatic plant pathogens and their diseases. 2015a, b). A phytoplasma infection often triggers leaf yellowing, probably due to the presence of phytoplasma cells in phloem, which can affect phloem function and carbohydrate transport,[11] inhibit chlorophyll biosynthesis, and trigger chlorophyll breakdown. 2015b). [22] Phytoplasmas cannot survive in the external environment and are dependent upon insects such as leafhoppers for transmission to new (healthy) plants. In Wejisekara HRT, Perera L, Wickramananda IR, Herath I, Meegahakumbura MK, Fernando WBS, de Silva PHPR (2008) Preliminary investigation on “weligama” coconut leaf wilt disease: a new disease in Southern Sri Lanka. Eds Oropeza C, Howard FW, Ashburner GR. In Africa, the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) and fan palm (Borassus aethiopum) were found harboring the LYD phytoplasma in Mozambique and assigned as alternate hosts for ‘Ca. They are transmitted from plant to plant by vectors (normally sap-sucking insects such as leafhoppers) in which they both survive and replicate. However, it is theorized that the stem-loop structures in PhREPS play a role in transcription termination or genome stability.[54]. However, as phytoplasmas spread more slowly than solutes, and for other reasons, passive translocation within plants is thought to be unimportant[40]. Unlike other Mollicutes, the triplet code of UGA is used as a stop codon in phytoplasmas. LY stage 2 involves only necrosis of the inflorescences (Harrison and Elliot 2005), while coconut palms at CILY stage 2 additionally exhibit yellowing of the older leaves, progressing to the younger leaves. [12], Many plant pathogens produce virulence factors (i.e., effectors) that modulate or interfere with normal host processes to the benefit of the pathogens. Outlook about persepectives and future work to contain spread of these diseases are also re-ported. Government Publication. Nested PCR and sequence analyses of the 16S rRNA and the secA genes confirmed the presence of the CILY phytoplasma in 216 out of 296 (73%) of the N. curta specimens, which suggested N. curta as a potential vector for the CILY phytoplasma (Kwadjo et al. Until the end of the 1990s, phytoplasmas associated with the “maladie de Kaincopé” in Togo, “awka wilt” in Nigeria, and CSPWD in Ghana were listed in the 16SrIV group (Lee et al. 2004). 2012). I. Dollet M, Quaicoe R, Pilet F (2009) Review of coconut “lethal yellowing” type diseases: diversity, variability and diagnosis. Martinez RT, Narvaez M, Fabre S, Harrison NA, Oropeza C, Dollet M, Hichez E (2008) Coconut lethal yellowing on the southern coast of the Dominican Republic is associated with a new 16SrIV group phytoplasma. pp 267-285 | Jarausch W, Angelini E, Eveillard S, Malembic-Maher S (2013) Management of fruit tree and grapevine phytoplasma disease through genetic resistance. 2013) and lipstick palm (Cyrtostachys renda) (Naderali et al. This is followed by yellowing and drying up of leaf margins. Although no transmission studies have been carried out testing Cedusa insects, this occurrence supports the potential existence of other vectors of LY phytoplasmas. In 1967, phytoplasmas were discovered in ultrathin sections of plant phloem tissue and were termed mycoplasma-like organisms due to their physiological resemblance The organisms were r… This protein associates with insect microfilament complexes and is believed to control insect-phytoplasma interactions. Yellowing of LY-affected palms does not show yellowing of fronds until stage 3 of the disease. Muddumadiah C, Madhupriya, Kumar S, Manimekalai R, Rao GP (2014) Detection and characterisation of 16SrI-B phytoplasmas associated with yellow leaf disease of arecanut palm in India. The host plants involved in such diseases include the oil palm, date palm, and arecanut palm (Table, Al-Awadhi H, Hanif A, Suleman P, Montasser M (2002) Molecular and microscopical detection of phytoplasma associated with yellowing disease of date palm. In Nigeria, LYD has nearly wiped out the palm plantations in south-east and south-south and is now spreading toward the south-west (Eziashi and Omar 2010). Phyllogens interact directly with class A and class E MTFs, inducing protein degradation in a ubiquitin/proteasome-dependent manner that, at least for SAP54, is dependent on interactions with the proteasome shuttle factor RAD23. The “bogia” coconut syndrome (BCS) phytoplasma is related to but distinct from all phytoplasmas described above; it appears to be closer to the lethal disease phytoplasma (Tanzania) (formally group 16SrIV) with only 96% identity (Kelly et al. Phytoplasmas are obligate bacterial parasites of plant phloem tissue and of the insect vectors that are involved in their plant-to-plant transmission. TENGU induces characteristic symptoms (termed “tengu-su”), including witches’ broom and dwarfism. Symptoms of CYD start with the yellowing of the canopy or eventually browning and chlorosis of the spear leaf. Thus, by compromising jasmonate production, SAP11 'encourages' leafhoppers to lay more eggs on phytoplasma-infected plants, thereby ensuring that newly hatched leafhopper nymphs feed upon infected plants to become phytoplasma vectors. In both cases LY-type syndromes were observed. ,[36] African fan palm (, Bila J, Högberg N, Mondjana A, Berit S, Michael W, Santos L (2017) First report of ‘, Brown SE, McLaughlin WA (2011) Identification of lethal yellowing group (16SrIV) of phytoplasmas in the weeds, Brown SE, Been BO, McLaughlin WA (2006) Detection and variability of the lethal yellowing group (16Sr IV) phytoplasmas in the, Brown SE, Been BO, McLaughlin WA (2008) First report of the presence of the lethal yellowing group (16SrIV) of phytoplasmas in the weeds. Medhi A, Baranwal VK, Babu MK, Deepthi P (2012) Sequence analysis of 16S rRNA and secA genes confirms the association of 16SrI-B subgroup phytoplasma with oil palm (. The presence of phytoplasmas and their associated diseases is an emerging threat to vegetable production which leads to severe yield losses worldwide. In Mozambique, Bila et al. Coconut yellowing disease. 2003) and Ghana (Nipah et al. Based on their 16S rRNA gene sequences, phytoplasmas from West Africa (Nigeria and Ghana) and East Africa (Tanzania) were confirmed as two different subclades (Tymon et al. 2002). Gurr GM, Bertaccini A, Gopurenko D, Krueger R, Alhudaib K, Liu J, Fletcher MJ (2015) Phytoplasmas and their insect vectors: implications for date palm. [58] The actual number of taxonomic groups remains unclear; recent work on computer-simulated restriction digests of the 16Sr gene suggested up to 28 groups,[59] whereas others have proposed fewer groups, but more subgroups. Integrated management of diseases caused by fungi, phytoplasma and bacteria. This raises concerns about possible seed transmission of LY, a development which requires appropriate quarantine and seed movement policies to forestall intra and inter county spread of the disease. [47] Many phytoplasmas contain two rRNA operons. phytoplasmas and SAP54 require these plant proteins to induce phyllody symptoms. Although two species, Diostrombus sp. Several economically relevant phytoplasma-associated diseases are described together with an update of phytoplasma taxonomy and major biological and molecular features of phytoplasmas. 2000) and in Sabal mexicana, Pseudophoenix sargentii, and Thrinax radiata palms in Mexico (Vázquez-Euán et al. Gundersen DE, Lee I-M, Rehner SA, Davis RE, Kingsbury DT (1994) Phylogeny of mycoplasmalike organisms (phytoplasmas): a basis for their classification. In Mozambique, the widely endorsed management approach for LYD is felling and burning of symptomatic coconut trees, which are replaced by another variety believed to be tolerant to the disease (Munguambe et al. Eds Waqas W, Faleiro R, Miller J, Thomas A. Springer, 287–314 pp. Thus, the host range of phytoplasmas is strongly dependent upon that of the insect vector. Viral and phytoplasmic infections share some symptoms. Pilet F, Philippe R, Reignard S, Descamps S, Quaicoe RN, Nkansah-Poku J, Fabre S, Dollet M (2009) Identification of potential insect vectors of the Cape Saint Paul wilt disease of coconut in Ghana by PCR. 2006). However, more recent reports have shown that for R. regia (Narvaez et al. For both LY and CILY at stage 3, the yellowed leaves eventually turn brown, desiccate, and hang down, forming a skirt around the trunk before falling and turning into telephone poles. Subgroup16SrIV-B was found in coconuts in Mexico and in coconuts and Acrocomia aculeata palms in Honduras (Roca et al. Modification in primary and secondary metabolic pathway genes is altered upon phytoplasma infestation. Myrie WA, Douglas L, Harrison NA, McLaughlin W, James M (2012) First report of lethal yellowing disease associated with subgroup 16SrIV, a phytoplasma on St. Kitts in the Lesser Antilles. Phytoplasmas which are cell-wall-less prokaryotes are associated with diseases of significant economic importance to palms worldwide. Both quantitative PCR and bioimaging can effectively quantify phytoplasma titers within plant. [57] Phytoplasma taxonomy is complicated because the organisms cannot be cultured; methods normally used to classify prokaryotes are thus not available. [38] Once established in an insect host, phytoplasmas are found in most major organs. 1974; McCoy 1972). Phytoplasmas are phloem-limited pleomorphic bacteria lacking the cell wall, mainly transmitted through leafhoppers but also by plant propagation materials and seeds. Similar devastation occurred in Ghana, causing the near collapse of the once vibrant coconut industry in the Volta Region, one of the main coconut-producing areas of Ghana, as well as destroying thousands of hectares of palms in the Western and Central Regions of Ghana (Ofori and Nkansah-Poku 1997; Nkansah-Poku et al. [15], In 2009, 56 genes for secreted proteins were identified in the genome of Aster Yellows phytoplasma strain Witches Broom (AY-WB); these were named secreted AY-WB proteins (SAPs) and considered effectors. The symptoms of LYD are typically very similar and include fruit abortion, necrosis of inflorescences, progressive yellowing of the leaves, rotting of the stem apical tissues, and wilting and collapse of the palm crown leading to coconut mortality (Dollet et al. References to diseases now known to be caused by phytoplasmas can be found as far back as 1603 (mulberry dwarf disease in Japan.) In: Characterization, Diagnosis and Management of Phytoplasmas. 2000), but transmission studies have not been successful. Edwin BT, Mohankumar C (2007a) Kerala wilt disease phytoplasma: phylogenetic analysis and identification of a vector, Edwin BT, Mohankumar C (2007b) Molecular identification of, Eziashi E, Omar I (2010) Lethal yellowing disease of the coconut palms (, FAO (2017) AGP-Integrated Pest Management (. Three of the species identified as alternate hosts in Côte d’Ivoire (S. indica, P. pedicellatum, and M. esculenta) had been assessed in Ghana using direct PCR, but they were not found to harbor the phytoplasma even though the phytoplasmas implicated in both diseases are in the same subgroup (16SrXXII-B). 2011). Based on the near full-length 16S rRNA gene, 16S–23S rRNA intergenic spacer region, and partial 23S rRNA gene sequences, Harrison et al. Razin S (2007) Molecular biology and genomics of. Phytoplasma-associated palm diseases have significant economic impact, particularly, for poor families that depend on the palms for their sustenance. In Mozambique, outbreaks of LYD have caused successions of epidemics and losses of millions of coconut palms, threatening the livelihood of a significant part of the Mozambican people, mainly for those living by the coastal belt. 2008; Brown and McLaughlin 2011). Phytoplasmas are pathogens of agriculturally important plants, including coconut, sugarcane, and sandalwood, in which they cause a wide variety of symptoms ranging from mild yellowing to death. Eds Eden-Green SJ, Ofori F, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, United Kingdom, 27–32 pp. Phytoplasma diseases and their economic importance Phytoplasmas are associated with plant diseases in several hundred plant species, including many important food, vegetable, and fruit crops; ornamental plants; and timber and shade trees. Intercropping coconut with other crops have failed to lower the disease incidence, but provided an alternative source of income as insurance against CSPWD in Ghana (Andoh-Mensah and Ofosu-Budu 2012) and LD in Tanzania (Oleke et al. In palms, phytoplasmas are associated with diseases in over 50 palm species (Harrison et al. Warokka WA, Jones P, Dickinson M (2006) Detection of phytoplasmas associated with Kalimanthan wilt disease of coconut by polymerase chain reaction. Olive phytoplasma diseases Why These phytoplasma diseases of olive came to our attention because two 'similar' reports were made approximately at the same time from Italy and Spain. 2014). Gasparich GE (2010) Spiroplasmas and phytoplasmas: Microbes associated with plant hosts. 2007). 2012). Oropeza C, Cordova I, Puch-Hau C, Castillo R, Chan JL, Sáenz L (2017) Detection of lethal yellowing phytoplasma in coconut plantlets obtained through. 2014). Hence, the effects of intercropping on LYD epidemiology require more effort to be elucidated. Phytoplasmas have lost ≥75% of their original genes, and can thus no longer survive outside of insects or plant phloem. TENGU homologs have been identified in AY-group phytoplasmas. Using different approaches evidence has been obtained that supports Haplaxius crudus (Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha: Cixiidae) (previously Myndus crudus) as an insect vectoring LY phytoplasmas in Florida (McCoy et al. Finding germplasm that is resistant to LYD in Mozambique has so far been a challenge. 2014). [14] TENGU contains a signal peptide at its N-terminus; after cleavage, the mature protein is only 38 amino acids in length. After yellowing, the affected branches dry, resulting in plants with mixed dead and still green branches. The first scientific report of the disease was made at the close of the nineteenth century in Jamaica. Nkansah-Poku J, Dery SK, Philippe R (2005) Reduction of spread of CSPWD of coconut by insecticidal hot-fogging and removal of diseased palms. The ability of the diseases to cause unrestrained destruction in coconut, for example, is a major concern that requires international concerted effort to address. comprehensive list see McCoy et al. Yankey EN (2012) The lethal disease of coconut in Ghana: developing markers and pathogen quantification techniques for the breeding of resistant or tolerant varieties. Nipah JO, Jones P, Dickinson MJ (2007) Detection of lethal yellowing phytoplasma in embryos from coconut palms infected with Cape St Paul wilt disease in Ghana. [A Ciancio; K G Mukerji;] -- This book is about stone fruit and apple diseases, grapevine and fruit crops phytoplasma, Phytophthora on citrus, chestnut diseases, esca complex on grapevine and Rosellinia necatrix root rot. Plant diseases are caused by harmful microorganisms such as virus and bacteria. Cite as. The expression of genes involved in maintaining the apical meristem or in the development of floral organs is altered in the morphologically affected floral organs of phytoplasma-infected plants.[9][10]. Controlling phytoplasma diseases usually begins with controlling insect vectors. [51] The larger phytoplasma genomes are around 1350 kb in size. Ultrathin sections of phloem tissue from plants with suspected phytoplasma-infections were also studied. Drug for Humans Checks Palm Trees Disease. Viral and phytoplasmic infections share some symptoms. Tahir Awan M.Sc. 2006). Outlook about persepectives and future work to contain spread of these diseases are also reported. Eds Eden-Green SJ, Ofori F, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, United Kingdom, 255–260 pp. 2016). [8] Such symptoms are actually useful in the commercial production of poinsettias. CILY stage 1, on the other hand, includes the starting of yellowing of the older leaves as well as the beginning of inflorescence blackening, in addition to premature nut fall (Arocha-Rosete et al. In the early 1990s, polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based techniques were developed: these are far more sensitive than ELISAs, and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis allowed the accurate identification of various phytoplasma strains and species.[41]. Such subclades were informally proposed as three separate ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma’ species (IRPCM 2004), which were further supported by phylogenetic analysis of secA gene sequences (Hodgetts et al. Plant Pathology online early edition. The small genome size of phytoplasma is attributable to reductive evolution from Bacillus/Clostridium ancestors. Phytoplasma asteris" Strains OY-M and AY-WB", "The linear chromosome of the plant-pathogenic mycoplasma 'Candidatus Phytoplasma mali, "Molecular Biology and Pathogenicity of Mycoplasmas", Phytoplasma Classification Iphyclassifier, First International Phytoplasmologist Working Group Meeting, Photo gallery about plants infected of phytoplasma, Phytoplasma Resource and phytoplasma classification database, First Internet Conference of Phytopathogenic Mollicutes, The Centre for Information on Coconut Lethal Yellowing, Current research on Phytoplasmas at the Norwich Research Park, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phytoplasma&oldid=987883453, CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2020, Articles with dead external links from December 2019, Articles with permanently dead external links, Automatic taxoboxes using manual parameters, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, This page was last edited on 9 November 2020, at 20:22. [8] In 1992, the Subcommittee on the Taxonomy of Mollicutes proposed the use of "Phytoplasma" rather than "mycoplasma-like organisms" "for reference to the phytopathogenic mollicutes". Similarly, fast and more effective transmission trials would have to be developed to prove the vectoring capacity of N. curta in both Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana. 2016) has, however, begun to overcome this hurdle. Phytoplasmas are normally controlled by the breeding and planting of disease-resistant crop varieties (perhaps the most economically viable option) and by the control of insect vectors. They are known for their ability to transmit various diseases across the plant communities. [42], Plantibodies targeting phytoplasmas have also been developed. The nucleic acid techniques based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) procedures developed in the last 20 years are now Myrie W, Harrison N, Douglas L, Helmick E, Gore-Francis J, Oropeza C, McLaughlin WA (2014) Identification of lethal yellowing disease of palms associated with infection by subgroup 16SrIV-A phytoplasmas in Antigua, West Indies. McCoy et al. "Living with Genome Instability: the Adaptation of Phytoplasmas to Diverse Environments of Their Insect and Plant Hosts", "Comparative Genome Analysis of "Candidatus Phytoplasma australiense" (Subgroup tuf-Australia I; rp-A) and "Ca. Wilson MR (1987) African Derbidae (Homoptera, Fulgoroidea): taxonomic notes with descriptions of new species collected mainly from coconut. So far a coconut variety able to resist this disease has not been found. Roca MM, Castillo MG, Harrison NA Oropeza C (2006) First report of a 16SrIV group phytoplasma associated with declining coyol palms in Honduras. Based on molecular screening, Pentatomidae specimens of Platacantha lutea were revealed as a potential insect vectoring LYD phytoplasma in northern Mozambique (Dollet et al. Typical LYD symptoms progression in Mozambique: premature nut drop (a); progressive yellow discoloration from the oldest to the youngest leaves followed by skirt-shaped brown discoloration (necrosis) of the older leaves (b, c); rotting and death of the apical meristem/spear leaves (d) followed by wilting and collapse of the entire crown (e) leaving an empty stem (f), Sequence of symptom development of CSPWD in Ghana. Philippe R, Simon R, Deschamp S, Nkansak-Poku J, Pilet F, Fabre S, Dollet M (2009) Study on the transmission of lethal yellowing in Ghana. (1998) showed that the phytoplasmas causing “awka” disease in Nigeria (LDN) and Cape St. Paul wilt disease (CSPWD) in Ghana were associated with either the same or very closely related strains. [53], Phytoplasma genomes contain large numbers of transposons and insertion sequences and also contain a unique family of repetitive extragenic palindromes termed PhREPS for which no role is known. Subcommittee on the Taxonomy of Mollicutes. Narvaez M, Cordova I, Orellana R, Harrison NA, Oropeza C (2006) First report of a lethal yellowing phytoplasma in, Narvaez M, Córdova-Lara I, Reyes-Martínez C, Puch-Hau C, Mota-Narvaez L, Collí A, Caamal G, Harrison N, Sáenz L, Oropeza C (2016) Occurrence of 16SrIV subgroup-A phytoplasmas in, Nejat N, Sijam K, Abdullah SNA, Dickinson M (2009a) First report of a 16SrXIV, ‘. Lebrun P, Baudouin L, Myrie W, Berger A, Dollet M (2008) Recent lethal yellowing outbreak: why is the Malayan yellow dwarf coconut no longer resistant in Jamaica. 2006). The diseases are vectored by insects, such as Haplaxius crudus, which transmits the lethal yellowing phytoplasma in Florida. Dikinson, M. Molecular Plant Pathology (2003) BIOS Scientific Publishers. [55] In 2004, the generic name phytoplasma was adopted and is currently of Candidatus (Ca.) Phytoplasmas are cell-wall-less prokaryotes that until recently could not be cultivated in cell-free media (Lee et al. Get this from a library! [16] Also in 2009, effector SAP11 was shown to target plant cell nuclei and unload from phloem cells in AY-WB-infected plants. © 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. 2014; Vázquez-Euán et al. Schuiling M, Nienhaus F, Kaiza DA (1981) The syndrome in coconut palms affected by a lethal disease in Tanzania. Based on phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene, the phytoplasmas associated with LY in the Americas have been classified within group 16SrIV (Lee et al. Although phytoplasmas have recently been reported to be grown in a specific artificial medium, experimental repetition has yet to be reported. Reports across coconut-growing regions of Mozambique, Nigeria, and Tanzania reveal that lethal yellowing-like diseases (LYD) remains a serious issue (Eziashi and Omar 2010; Munguambe et al. 1983), México (Oropeza and Zizumbo 1997), Belize (Eden-Green 1997), Honduras (Ashburner et al. 2000; Bila et al. Diseases with symptoms resembling those of LY were first reported in Africa at the beginning of the twentieth century. These bacteria have been previously isolated from trunks of date palms (Phoenix canariensis, Chabaud) affected by the lethal decline phytoplasma using a universal phytoplasma primer pair (P1/P7) in Texas (Harrison et al. Insect-pests and plant diseases are major factors of economical loss in agriculture and horticulture. In East Africa, the disease has been reported in Tanzania (Lethal Disease: LD) (Schuiling et al. PhD thesis, University of Nottingham. Lee I-M, Gundersen-Rindal DE, Davis RE, Bartoszyk IM (1998) Revised classification scheme of phytoplasmas based on RFLP analyses of 16SrRNA and ribosomal protein gene sequences. Similar diseases were reported in Togo (“kaincope” disease), Cameroon (“kribi” disease), and Ghana (“Cape St. Paul wilt” disease) by the early 1930s (Eden-Green 1997). As a plant pathogen, it is without the scope of this report to fully review the diseases caused by phytoplasmas in ornamentals. Thus, tetracycline is not a viable agricultural control agent, but it is used to protect ornamental coconut trees. Plants infected with phytoplasma diseases show a wide range … Beakbane AB, Slater CHW, Posnette AC (1972) Mycoplasmas in the phloem of coconut. [13] Transgenic expression of TENGU in Arabidopsis plants induced sterility in male and female flowers. 2016). Phytoplasma Collection Phytoplasma collection in micropropagated shoots at the Phytoplasmology Laboratory, Plant Pathology, DiSTA - Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Italy More than 140 phytoplasma strains classified on 16Sr DNA gene are available for exchange with worldwide laboratories working on phytoplasma-associated diseases. Phytoplasmas are Mollicutes, which are bound by a triple-layered membrane, rather than a cell wall. [44] However, disease symptoms reappear in the absence of continuous antibiotic application. Subgroup 16SrIV-A has been found in coconut and other palm species and has killed millions of coconut palms of the highly susceptible Atlantic Tall variety in different countries in the Americas, including Antigua (Myrie et al. Similar symptoms of CYD have been observed on other palms such as foxtail palm (Wodyetia bifurcata) in 2012 (Naderali et al. Palms with such symptoms were originally reported in the nineteenth century in the Caribbean (Fawcett 1891 in Eden-Green 1997), but the first epidemic with extensive loss of palms occurred in Jamaica during the 1960s (Eden-Green 1997). Phytoplasma diseases on potato appear to increase in importance worldwide. Mpunami A, Tymon A, Jones P, Dickinson MJ (2000) Identification of potential vectors of the coconut lethal disease phytoplasma. In: Current Advances in Coconut Biotechnology. Arocha-Rosete Y, Diallo HA, Konan Konan JL, Yankey N, Saleh M, Pilet F, Contaldo N, Paltrinieri S, Bertaccini A, Scott J (2017) Detection and differentiation of the coconut lethal yellowing phytoplasma in coconut-growing villages of Grand-Lahou, Côte d'Ivoire. P. palmicola’, the other group associated with LYD in Mozambique is the Tanzanian LD phytoplasma (Bila et al. evidence of benefit for the pathogen) were identified. (2009) and Yankey (Yankey 2012) performed extensive surveys during both rainy and dry season in two different areas, Asebu and Cape Three Points in the Central and Western Regions, respectively, sampling and analyzing 57 plant species. Houston, USA, 219–248 pp. The vector for CSPWD phytoplasma in Ghana is still unknown despite massive surveys that resulted in over 12,500 specimens representing 203 species of 19 families (Pilet et al. Part of Springer Nature. Phytoplasmas are phloem-limited plant pathogenic bacteria in the class Mollicutes transmitted by sap-feeding insect vectors of the Order Hemiptera.Vectors still have not yet been identified for about half of the 33 known phytoplasma groups and this has greatly hindered efforts to control the spread of diseases affecting important crops. (2005) showed that the treatment of infected farms with insecticide by hot fogging followed by felling diseased and contact palms, immediately upon detection, slows down CSPWD and in some cases completely holds the disease for few years. That is the case of Pandanus utilis (Thomas and Donselman 1979) and Carludovica palmata (Cordova et al. Dollet M, Macome F, Vaz A, Fabre S (2011) Phytoplasmas identical to coconut lethal yellowing phytoplasmas from Zambesia (Mozambique) found in a pentatomide bug in Cabo Delgado province. In 2013, a yellow decline was observed also on royal palms (Roystonea regia) (Naderali et al. Phytoplasmas have undoubtedly infected plants and cause diseases for centuries before they are described and proven to be the causal agents. which feed on the phloem of infected plants, ingesting phytoplasmas and transmitting them to the next plant on which they feed. 2014). There are approximately 62,000 coconuts in Michael Black Farm, and within the period of 2002–2013, only 915 palms or 1.5% have been lost (Coconut Industry Board 2013). , Verdeil JL, Ashburner GR, Cardeña R, Miller J, Högberg N Dickinson. More than a single flower Canadian horticultural and field crops - Volume 141 Issue -... Their normal growth patterns ( 1981 ) the possible cause of lethal yellowing-type diseases have significant economic to... Africa and are of great concern howard FW, Ashburner GR, R! Homologs undergo processing and can thus no longer survive outside of insects or plant.. Ifas Extension, 222 pp Paltrinieri S, phytoplasma diseases list B, Paltrinieri S, Duduk B Bertaccini... Some time before eventually falling off rather than a specific pathogenetic process original,... 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